Modern alchemy to try to create new materials through their property, may be a better return on all kinds of purposes. One of the requirements necessary to choose the chemical reactions necessary to synthesize new product is to develop a psychological result of perception of knowledge and reasoning of the structure of reagents and their basic properties, as some of the Noesis course of chemical reactions and mechanisms going to influence them.
A chemical reaction is a change in the atoms and their components, leading to new atoms are formed with new properties. The progress of a reaction is described by a chemical equation. The materials react together are called reagents, materials formed in a reaction are called products. A reaction equation or a chemical equation, is used to shorten and symbolize a chemical reaction. Reagents, equipment, triggering a chemical reaction that is written on the left side of a chemical equation, in front of an arrow, and the product is written on the right side of this arrow:
Fe(s) + S(s) ® FeS(s)
Iron (in the carbon group) and sulphur (same group) react to invent iron sulphide.
In many reactions. Condition of the fabric of the material change For this reason, (g) whether the material or reagent or product in the company (s), liquid (L) and gas is mediated by similar letter in parentheses as shown above. If a reaction results in the quantity of goods is less than the reactants, we call this reaction a combination or synthesis. If there are more productions than reactive, it is a dissociation, or splitting reaction.
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Undertake to achieve the elements of the state, which is the most natural or most energetically to take advantage of it, or one in which the shells are filled electron shells. For this reason, the electrons are very often part-time, between the atoms, either donated or accepted. Some ingredients to donate electrons more easily when a lot of ingredients to receive electrons easily. In extreme cases, the electrons of an atom are completely applied to an atom or another of the same element. But most of the time, the electrons are not only transferred, but the split in the middle of two atoms, however, these electrons can be attracted to the second atom stronger than the others. It is a chemical bond.
The best method of cells and molecules idealist is always the state of lowest energy. In most chemical reactions, then the energy contained in the obligations of the energy released in the environment. But for such energy-releasing reaction to occur, the reactants must be infused with enough energy to break bonds and give BASI training new. In most cases, a certain amount of energy to be added to the system (usually in the form of heat), starting with the reaction, or to make it work. This energy is called activation energy for a reaction.
For new substances to form, the obligations of the original reagents have to be broken. Activation energy must be introduced into the system. This helps in the formation of new bonds, which are more energetically favorable for the cells and molecules involved in the reaction. If a reaction evolves more energy than needed to start (activation energy), this reaction continues on the car, causing the release of much energy to the environment.
This is an exothermic reaction. However, if the energy released by the formation of new compounds is lower than is the activation energy, energy must be continually added to the reaction progresses. This type of reaction does not go himself. This is an endothermic reaction.
The energy can be released as heat, but it can be light or electricity, too. The medley of energetic phenomena released by chemical reactions is called heat of reaction.
Each chemical reaction is more typical pace (reaction rate). Influence this index is very important in chemistry. The concentration of the reactants and products can be determined, and that changes may, in the heat and temperature. In the gaseous state of matter reactions, reaction rate can be influenced by pressure, with higher pressures resulting in quicker reactions. Increases the reaction rate as the concentration of reactants also increases. Increased temperature also causes reaction rate to rise. An increase of 10 Kelvin (= 10 ° C) causes the reaction rate doubles.
The reaction rate is strongly influenced by the size of the surface on which the reagents are reacted. In other words, if the reactive particles are divided into a Littler reaction proceeds more quickly than if reactants are left loose. Formation of ions
In a lot of substances that make up atoms, which is called an ionic bond. In this type of bond, the electrons in an atom outer shell of the atom translated to another, who accepts. It is a transfer finishes. The atom that accepts electrons or electrons completely fill the external tank, then make a noble gas electron configuration. The atom donor, which gives the electron also carries a noble gas electron configuration (at a lower level of energy) by emptying the outermost shell.
The transfer of negatively charged electrons leads to an excess of positively charged protons in the atom donors, therefore, the formation of an ion is generally positively charged (cations). The second atom, which accepts the electron or electrons, becomes a negatively charged ion (anion). An ionic bond is based on the electrostatic attraction of two ions of opposite charge.
Salts form a large proportion of compounds that form ionic bonds. They consist of atoms or molecules with a positive charge (cations) and the other half of an acid, a negatively charged anion. The reaction mechanism begins when an atom (or atoms) of hydrogen escape from the acid that forms a positive ion. The positively charged hydrogen atom is replaced by another cation (or cations).
For example: HCl (hydrochloric acid) + NaOH (sodium hydroxide) = NaCl (table salt) + H2O (water)
The valence of a salt is given by the number of hydrogen ions that is competent to implement in a given reaction.
In the above reaction is a single hydrogen ion substituted by sodium ion, forming sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl). For this reason, table salt a valence state. The salts are soluble (able to dissolve) in water and have high melting and boiling point. Salts, when present in the solid state of matter is in crystalline form.
Ionic compounds are usually spatially repeating molecules. In other words, they form crystals. The crystals may grow or crystallize from a solution completely full (from a solution that exceeded the solubility more or most complete or best possible, which is more salt than can be dissolved). Alternatively, crystals can be grown from the transformation of an amorphous material (from a solid material without crystalline structure).
What is the difference between the middle of the crystalline material and amorphous? Amorphous materials are not repeated, fixed, regular structures. On the other hand, crystalline structures have completely determined the internal arrangements - their crystal lattice.
Each crystal has a specific angle, which together form the sides of the crystal. These repeat in a formation, with proportions that are very specific.
Other types of bonds may be incorporated in the crystal lattice, because it is a part. Crystals can be in any shape or size. These different crystalline structures, their different shapes and sizes, which are separate from, atoms and ions corpuscles. Everything depends on the precise geometrical arrangement the crystal, which is defined by the boundaries and the abundance of cases, sharp edges. Crystal lattice is an idealistic thing of beauty, where all points of the lattice are perfectly arranged in their natural beauty. In reality, however, as the perfect crystals are rare. Most of the time, the natural crystals are imperfect. Some of the topics included in the crystal lattice of points, which are not covered. Sometimes, the reticle is very spoiled.
The growth of a crystal or crystals is dependent on external factors such as temperature, the natural rate of crystal growth, solution concentration, the amount of crystallized material and the presence, if any, foreign material in the solution.
The crystals can be described with the help of two terms:
Proportion of the type of crystal and Crystal
Groups that are from respective materials can be combined to form a complex, varied structure, imperfect crystal.
The crystals can also be differentiated according to their crystal lattice. According to this criterion, there are single crystals, in which points in the crystal lattice are occupied by components of the same species. The growth of a crystal can be seen as a kind of regular swelling, on all sides that the walls and edges. Besides, there are complex crystals, which are composed of several single crystals.
The crystals can be studied by structural analysis procedures. There are seven basic types of crystal lattices and seven other derivatives thereof. All together, about 1000 crystal structures currently known.
Polymorphic crystals can appear in different forms. Materials formed by crystals can actually change their crystal lattice depending on temperature. Graphite (pencil factor) and diamond are both modifications of the crystal structure of carbon atoms (C). The various features from different attractions and strengths among the respective atoms.
Allotrope (Allos Greek - different, the language files - change) is a compound that has the authority to adopt such forms.
Monotropa is these crystals that can be arranged, respectively, but only one is stable. Other forms, when present, tend to become the most stable. Since the differences in temperature are not applicable to this situation, these changes can be considered as the base temperature. While allotropic materials can be found in a variety of ways, monotropic, however, eventually become one, the most stable.
Enantiotropic is these crystals that have the ability to change their crystal structures depending on temperature. As the temperature rises or falls, these crystals change their crystalline arrangements. A network is above the temperature, of course, another place below the critical temperature. In most cases, these critical temperatures are very high. Of interest are a number of forms of iron that are taken for the duration of production.
Are isomorphic substances that share the same crystal structure but are composed entirely different.
One of the simplest crystalline structures is table salt characterized (NaCl). Its structure is that of a cube that is unless, the corners of chloride ions. Sodium ions in the centers of the sides and center of the cube.
Pairs of electrons, covalent bonds
Bonds between atoms, or a group of cases of small particles may be different. Paired, covalent bonds are non-metallic molecules. The atoms in the molecules of basic gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are all joined by covalent bonds. These types of bonds, the atoms connected by electrons in the outer shell. The result is the union of two electrons to form pairs of electrons. Negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nuclei linked by both atoms. Since the two nuclei should now share the electrons, which stay together, joined the Union on the electrons, the electron pair.
Each of the two atoms, then, apparently, one or more extra electrons. The link between molecules is based on the attraction of two nuclei of molecules in the pair of shared electrons. The shared electrons belong to both atoms in the same time. All atoms in a state they are, tend to fill their outer electron shells. In the hydrogen molecule (H2), each hydrogen atom has two electrons that are affiliated, is the outer layer alone. (A hydrogen atom has given a single electron.) However, when two hydrogen atoms bonded to each other, reaching the electronic configuration of the second element, helium (He).
Covalent bonds are very stable because the atoms involved in a covalent compound to comply fully with its outer layers, so that the particles at its strongest desirable. This arrangement of electrons is equivalent to that of a noble gas, as all noble gases have stable electron configuration (the outer layer filled with electrons). In addition, the molecules of chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen, which can reach the stable electron configuration in its outer shell - the union with another atom of its own species. That is, two chlorines bonded together, two oxygen atoms, two nitrogen atoms.
In order to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas, it is necessary to fill the respective spaces ofttimes in the electronic layer outside. In this case, several pairs of electrons are needed to fill these "holes." In the oxygen molecule, two electron pairs are needed, with the nitrogen molecule three. This is necessary because all atoms taking part in this type of binding reactions necessary either two electrons in its outer shell (elements in the energy level of origin, or the period of the periodic table: H and He) or 8 (other groups on the examination table that are on the right). These atoms are not complete outer shells of electrons attract other electrons from other atoms to fill their tanks completely. An oxygen atom can bind as two atoms, forming an electron with each of them, or you can join other atoms to form two pairs of electrons an atom, called the double bond. There are also triple bonds.
In a covalent bond is a pair of shared electrons in a molecule drawn by the two nuclei of both sides as strongly, but only if the two molecules share this pair are the same. Force of attraction depends on the charge of the atomic nucleus and the amount of electrons in the electron cloud of the atom. The ability to attract the electrons of an element called electronegativity (EN) by L. Pauling (American chemist).
Amount electro negativity is noted that the comparative ability of an atom to be attracted to someone of the atomic nucleus. In other words, fluorine atom attracts the electrons more strongly linked to all atoms. It was therefore assigned the most prominent negativity of all voters electro - 4.0. Electronegativity values of all elements can be found in the periodic table. In each period, each horizontal row of increasing electronegativity periodic table from left to right throughout the period, with an increasing number of protons or atomic number. On the other hand, in the different groups as we move down the periodic table from top to bottom, or vertically, electronegativity decreases. Then, the factor with the largest value of electronegativity logically located in the upper right corner of the table time.
A compound consists of two different atoms, the electron pair is not equally distributed between the two. Instead, both parties are attracted to a variety of great strength, which is based on atoms of different electronegativity. In molecular hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom of a pair of electrons. But since the entire core dandier chlorine, this pair of electrons more strongly attracted to the core of the nucleus of hydrogen chloride. In addition, the chlorine atom has another 6 electrons in outer shell. These are arranged in three pairs of electrons - all the loose ensiölasipuhalluseristettä. For this reason, the chlorine atom is overall negative charge that, if only a partial negative charge. The hydrogen atom on the other side has the same value of the positive partial charge. Chloride molecule HCl, or hydrogen, which is a partial positive side (hydrogen), and has a partial negative side (chlorine) is called a dipole moment or dipole.
The electronegativity of a factor is determined by the number of protons it has in it the nucleus, and the number of electrons in its outer shell remains. Thanks to the partial transfer of an electron bound to the more electronegative atom in a molecule, this molecule can have both positive and negative. These parts are called poles, and if they differ substantially, the molecule is said to have a dipole. The result is a molecule with a positive side, a negative aspect. This may, of course, affect neighboring molecules attract or repel each other if they are partially charged. The water molecule has a partial negative charge, which is the oxygen atom. The two hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge.
The two pairs of free electrons in the oxygen atom to attract the middle of a positively charged molecule with the electromagnetic force neighbors beauty. This type of bonding is called hydrogen bonding. Each molecule of hydrogen bonds of water with other water molecules, the alignment in order to lead to a positive pattern, negative repetitive. The positive side is hydrogen, oxygen negative. This phenomenon, hydrogen bonds in water, explains the high surface tension of water. This means that the cells on the surface are weakly attached to the remainder of the liquid, these hydrogen bonds. For this reason, water, even at relatively high temperatures, it remains a liquid, while others have changed similar atoms in gaseous state.
Bonds at the center of each atom can be described by:
H: H formula with points or dots, indicating electrons
H - H or with hydrogen chloride H Cl valence formula
H2 HCl chemical formula of the molecule
Acids, bases, salts
Intermolecular forces
Most inorganic compounds are classified as acids, bases or salts. S. Arrhenius (Swedish chemist physical) come with one of the most commonly requested the definitions of an acid.
According to this definition, acids, substances which, when dissolved in water release hydrogen cations (atoms of hydrogen with a positive charge). Bases, on the other hand, are materials which release hydroxide anions (negatively charged compounds of one atom of oxygen, hydrogen) to the solution when dissolved.
The salts are composed of atoms or molecules with one side positively charged way, the other negatively charged.
They are formed from an acid when the acid gives up hydrogen cells by their positive charges, only to replace hydrogen with a metal ion.
Number of acids and bases were known long before their tricks and chemical reaction mechanisms were known. Pure substances can not be separated from each other. Thus, the acid is dissolved in water, so that chemists to determine their basic properties. The acids react when placed in water. Ions in acid solution separated, the hydrogen-tion, and the anion identity. Both, water free ions, interact with it. Basically, water molecules surround the ions to create the so-called hydrated ions. Thus, the hydrogen ion does not remain in isolation, but through the hydration reaction to formulate positive charged molecule "water", the reaction of H 2 O + H + = H3O +. These ions cause a solution of an acid nature, and causes a color change indicator, shows more than H3O +
ions in solution. (An indicator is a substance that can distinguish whether an acid or base is present in a solution.) Also cause ions in solution, a solution to conduct electricity, or be conductive.
When a base is dissolved in water, positive ions are released into the solution, and therefore negatively charged hydroxide ions. A solution that has hydroxide ions is a basic solution or an alkaline solution. As with the acids, the ions released into solution are hydrated, or surrounded by water. These solutions even drive an electric current. Basic solutions also affect the color of an indicator, and can produce basic salts when reacted with acids. The bases are fundamental lattice of ions. Their sound can carry an electrical current.
According to the Brönsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, any compound that releases a proton or a hydrogen atom in an acid solution. Any compound which accepts a proton is considered as a basis. Solutions that incorporate dissolved acids and bases because they release protons or hydroxide ions to conduct electricity.
Chemical routine, which is called an electric current passes through the electrolysis solution. The bonds are broken due to electrolysis of routines, new substances are formed at the ends of the conductors or electrodes.
Electrolysis reactions require the kinds of solutions including ions dissociated, allowing the solution to carry an electrical current.
In the electrolysis of ionic solution, negatively charged ions (anions) move positively charged electrode (the anode), while the positively charged cations move in a negatively charged electrode, the cathode. In the case of an acidic or basic, positive ions move toward the cathode (negative electrode end of the pole), whereas the negative hydroxide ions to swim the anode (positive electrode). These types of solutions (called electrolytic), there is no movement of electrons from the crystal lattice, but without the movement of swimming ions corresponding to the electrodes. Number of ions is a decisive factor in whether and how well a solution conducts electricity.
The volume of hydrogen ions in a solution is measured as the pH of a solution. PH is the negative logarithm to base ten to the concentration of protons (hydrogen (H), measured from 0 to 14. A pH of O means that the concentration of hydrogen = 1, while a value of 14 means a concentration of 0.00000000000001. Solutions with a pH of 0-7 is acidic.
The sour the reputation of a solution decreases with increasing pH. A pH of 7 is a neutral solution. As the pH rises from 7, so does the alkalinity of a solution. A pH of 7 is that the same amount of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions.
The indicators used to determine the reputation of an acidic or basic reaction. These substances must have a right to change color in the presence of an acid or basic solution. For example, the color of litmus paper turns blue in basic solution. In a neutral solution, it is pink. In a basic solution, it is red. Color changes are different from one indicator to another, but are characteristic of a particular indicator. With the right choice of an indicator, the pH can be somewhat accurately determined.
The extent to which an acid releases hydrogen ions in solution depends on the concentration of an acid. The most inviolable of acid, the more protons it releases into solution and the most negative ions as well. Two known strong acids, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Weak acids, on the other hand, do not release as many ions in solution. In other words, they do not dissociate as completely. Examples of weak acids include citric acid and acetic acid.
If we mix an acidic solution with a solution of uniformly strong base in the same proportion, the resulting solution will be neutral. This is called a neutralization reaction. In a neutralization reaction, hydrogen ions are neutralized by the hydroxide ions - forming water - and salt. The heat is also released for the duration of the neutralization reactions.
Many chemical reactions that do not seem to work, or go very slowly to be alive with the addition of a small quantity of a lot of material. Material, called a catalyst, is added to react. The reaction requires a catalyst which is said to be cured.
Catalysts participate in reactions, but they are not used by the reaction and are unchanged by the reaction. In this type of reaction requires a catalyst, the reagents react too late or not at all. In other words, a catalyst system a boost, increased energy Activision. The presence of a catalyst in a chemical reaction makes the reaction easier, or a lot of cases, possible at all: A catalyst participates in a reaction by reacting with a reagent to form a primary intermediate product is produce the desired end product. A possibleness is that one of the reactants, using the basic interaction with a catalyst, provide new spatial dimensions or other characteristics that make it more reactive with other reagents.
Chemical symbol for hydrogen gas
Only converted into a wonderful new invention of two guide elements, 2nd Edition is still easy to read, easy to understand resource for the periodic table that students and teachers of physical sciences expect. Driving Elements, Second Edition, will point the firstborn, which explains many of the basic ideas of alchemy and the history and development of the periodic table of elements. A clear and nontechnical language, Albert Stwertka take complex ideas and terms easily understandable. To complete the historical anecdotes and examples of every day, every article carefully looks to attract and retain an element and is involved in a lot of color photos for practical applications. Students of middle and high schools will find this a welcome reference, as well as adults who do not have a background in chemistry.
This new version includes:
* A complete list of informative sites
* An epilogue on the past as new elements
* A comprehensive yet changed the playlist
A splendid "search" of resources and a great introduction to chemistry, the Guide of the Elements, Second Edition is a good beginning step on the road to chemical literacy.
JournalWritten Library for high school students or curious lay reader, this reference book provides a brief introduction to the chemical elements. Stwertka (physics, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy) wrote or co-author of several books that explain scientific concepts at the middle school and high school. He begins his book with an introduction to popular history, theory and design of the periodic table, then a brief (one to seven pages) article on each of the 112 constituents detailing the history, there chemical and physical properties, and modern applications. The volume concludes with a brief glossary and a chronology. Although more selective information can be found in a good encyclopedia set, this reference is a practical book is a collection that will complement the collection of science in a school or public library.? Wade Lee University. Releases of Toledo., Ohio
Copyright 1996 Reed Business Information, Inc.
In BooklistThere is a real need for resources in relation to the elements for high school students. A guide to the elements are in the right direction. In the introduction, Stwertka explains the periodic table, is the history and design. It does so in language that is easy to understand, without oversimplifying the key concepts. Each element, therefore is the atomic number is one to seven pages, with color illustrations from time to time. The book is updated through 112 factors, conducted in early 1996. Each entry includes the atomic number, chemical symbol, and the band in a box, followed by a description of the invention and application of the element, which is used in products by the buyer. For example, under nitrogen, the discussion focuses on the use of nitric acid in fertilizer and explosives. The periodic table is reproduced in each entry, the factor in the debate highlighted.
As for the CD-ROM, boring is the largest of the word comes to mind. It provides data on very brief history of an item and its properties. The CD is easy to install and use, but the selective information is scarce. Audio excerpts include Liverpool Roger McGough reciting his poems, songs and humorous poetry about Tom Lehrer elements. There are video clips of the television series The Elements. The periodic table is shown as gray and red tiles, but the white font makes it difficult to read the number of factors. Again, an encyclopedia will provide more data in less time than it takes to put the CD in the drive and click on the icons and boxes needed.
Carbon (C) is able to form a single, double and triple bonds.
Besides the noble gases, which have their outermost electron shells full, and do not need electrons, the element that attracts the electrons are easier to fluorine (F), with a value of 4.0. At the other end of the periodic table, bottom left, are the components with the lowest electronegativity (Fr 0.7).
This means that a set of shared electrons are not distributed evenly. In this case, the pair is closer to the chlorine atom. And 'partial negative charge, because now has more electrons than protons, is the nucleus. Hydrogen, on the other side has fewer electrons than protons it is, and is therefore positive. Bound electrons are written in a line, a short line in the middle of the two elements or symbols of other molecules in chemical formulas. This type of identification is called Valence formula.
We see the middle of the homogeneous catalysis, which is the same state of matter such as heterogeneous catalysts and other reagents, where the catalyst is in a different state of matter.
A glossary, a chronology of the individual elements of the invention, a short list of further reading, and the index of the end of the book. Bibliography includes a list of 18 books published from 1961-1996, many of which are found in YA collections. Comparison with the neon manual marking it as Encyclopedia Americana and McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology found more detailed information, a necessary relationship, sometimes in two encyclopedias, but not so attractive was presented. Schools and public libraries should consider purchase, perhaps, for the collection of motion.
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